Stress management - Psychological
Stress inoculation training (SIT)
Stress inoculation training is a more problem-focused coping strategy. It was developed by Donald Meichenbaum and the basic idea is to prepare individuals to cope with potential stressors. According to Meichenbaum (1985), the best way to cope with stressors is to go on the offensive and try to pre-empt them. People should try to anticipate sources of stress and have effective coping strategies ready to put in place.
however, SIT takes time and effort and as clients have to go through a rigorous program of training over a long period, it can only work with people who have a sufficiently high level of motivation and commitment. It also may not suit certain individuals, for example those whose basic personality makes them resistant to changing cognition's.
Stress Management - physiological.
Anti-anxiety drugs
In some cases, chronic stress reactions are treated by the use of anti-anxiety (anxiolytic) drugs. This might occur, for example, in post-traumatic stress disorder. The most commonly prescribed drugs are the benzodiazapines: Valium (diazapam) and Librium (chlorodiazepoxide). They act by facilitating the activity of GABA, an important chemical transmitter in the brain. They do this in a complex way, binding with receptor sites in a way that enhances the effectiveness of GABA. Barbiturates and alcohol have a similar effect. Because GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter, the effect of benzodiazapines, barbiturates and alcohol is neural inhibition. It is suggested that anti-anxiety drugs mimic the effect of the brain’s own anti-anxiety compounds that are released in times of stress, though no-one has yet been able to find these compounds.
Anti-anxiety drugs have a number of disadvantages. They can have serious side effects and can be very addictive. Although helpful in the short term, their disadvantages may sometimes outweigh their advantages. For example, benzodiazapines may be used to treat insomnia (frequently a consequence of stress) but the sleep they induce is not as refreshing as natural sleep. In fact, it has been claimed that the most common cause of insomnia is dependency on sleep medication.
The problem with all physical methods is that they treat the symptoms of stress and not its causes (i.e. coping with stress rather than managing stress). Someone suffering from stress at work would be better advised to examine his or her work patterns and relationships than to take tablets for stress symptoms.
Friedman & Rosenman’s (1974)
200 participants (all men) were given questionnaires. From their responses, and from their manner, each participant was put into one of three groups:
Results
Eight years later 257 of the participants had developed CHD. 70% of these had originally been classed as type A.
People who demonstrate type A behaviour are more likely to smoke, drink excessively and lead generally less healthy lifestyles. Perhaps this, rather than the behaviour type itself causes CHD.
Conclusion
The conclusion to draw here is that there may be a link between behaviour (or personality) and stress
Lazarus (1999)
suggests that hassles tend to build up and act as a source of persistent irritation which can then lead to anxiety and even depression.
The scale was tested on different groups of people to determine its relevance. Patients would add up the score for each life event and this would be their total LCU. They believed that a score of over 300 meant an 80% chance of developing a serious physical illness in the following year.
Segerstrom and Miller (2004)
carried out a meta-analysis of other studies and concluded pretty much the same thing. Short term stress boosts immunity whereas long term, chronic stress suppresses immunity. The longer the stress continues the weaker the immune response becomes leaving us more and more prone to infection.
Kiecolt-Glaser et al (1984)
Method
They took blood samples from 75 student volunteers
1. One month before examinations (control reading)
2. On the first day of their exams (stress reading).
They also completed a questionnaire to assess their psychiatric state, their level of loneliness and number of life events.
Results
In the stressed condition, on the day of their finals, they had significantly fewer natural killer cells.
They also found that loneliness, lots of life events and problems such as depression were all associated with a weak immune response.
Evaluation
It is a natural experiment since it took advantage of a naturally occurring event; examinations. The independent variable (IV) was exam stress, a long-term form of stress. Most studies have concentrated on short-term stress.
Stress and Illness
Hypertension - High blood pressure
Hypo-tension - Low blood pressure
Stress causes coronary heart disease when the person is suffering from prolonged stress, the glucose ans fatty acid levels stay high in the blood, which causes the artery walls to clog/fur up which results in heart disease and strokes.
Stress and the immune system
Natural immunity - Primitive system made of white blood cells in the blood stream. They attack/absorb invading pathogens/viruses and bacteria. These include natural killer cells and phagocytes.
Specific Immunity - Based on cells known as lymphocytes. Cells have the ability to recognize pathogens and produce specific antibodies to destroy them. Specific immunity is divide into cellular and numeral immunity.
SAM Pathway and HPA axis.
The hypothalamus - Center of the control of the brain.
The Pituitary gland - the master gland that releases hormones into the bloodstream. The ultimate control is at the hypothalamus as release depends on its activity, i.e, SAM or HPA.
HPA
SAM
Fight or Flight Reaction.
Physical Changes -
The Body's response to Stress
Stress inoculation training (SIT)
Stress inoculation training is a more problem-focused coping strategy. It was developed by Donald Meichenbaum and the basic idea is to prepare individuals to cope with potential stressors. According to Meichenbaum (1985), the best way to cope with stressors is to go on the offensive and try to pre-empt them. People should try to anticipate sources of stress and have effective coping strategies ready to put in place.
however, SIT takes time and effort and as clients have to go through a rigorous program of training over a long period, it can only work with people who have a sufficiently high level of motivation and commitment. It also may not suit certain individuals, for example those whose basic personality makes them resistant to changing cognition's.
Stress Management - physiological.
Anti-anxiety drugs
In some cases, chronic stress reactions are treated by the use of anti-anxiety (anxiolytic) drugs. This might occur, for example, in post-traumatic stress disorder. The most commonly prescribed drugs are the benzodiazapines: Valium (diazapam) and Librium (chlorodiazepoxide). They act by facilitating the activity of GABA, an important chemical transmitter in the brain. They do this in a complex way, binding with receptor sites in a way that enhances the effectiveness of GABA. Barbiturates and alcohol have a similar effect. Because GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter, the effect of benzodiazapines, barbiturates and alcohol is neural inhibition. It is suggested that anti-anxiety drugs mimic the effect of the brain’s own anti-anxiety compounds that are released in times of stress, though no-one has yet been able to find these compounds.
Anti-anxiety drugs have a number of disadvantages. They can have serious side effects and can be very addictive. Although helpful in the short term, their disadvantages may sometimes outweigh their advantages. For example, benzodiazapines may be used to treat insomnia (frequently a consequence of stress) but the sleep they induce is not as refreshing as natural sleep. In fact, it has been claimed that the most common cause of insomnia is dependency on sleep medication.
The problem with all physical methods is that they treat the symptoms of stress and not its causes (i.e. coping with stress rather than managing stress). Someone suffering from stress at work would be better advised to examine his or her work patterns and relationships than to take tablets for stress symptoms.
Biofeedback
Another physical approach to stress management is biofeedback. This is based on the idea that giving a person information about the state of their body (for example blood pressure readings) provides them with the potential means to control it. Biofeedback has been shown to be successful in treating some stress related conditions, such as migraine and high blood pressure, but the results are no better than those of conventional relaxation training. Since it requires complex and expensive equipment, critics argue that there are more simple and more cost effective remedies for stress.
Friedman & Rosenman’s (1974)
200 participants (all men) were given questionnaires. From their responses, and from their manner, each participant was put into one of three groups:
- Type A behaviour: competitive, ambitious, impatient, aggressive, fast talking
- Type B behaviour: relaxed, non-competitive.
Results
Eight years later 257 of the participants had developed CHD. 70% of these had originally been classed as type A.
People who demonstrate type A behaviour are more likely to smoke, drink excessively and lead generally less healthy lifestyles. Perhaps this, rather than the behaviour type itself causes CHD.
Conclusion
The conclusion to draw here is that there may be a link between behaviour (or personality) and stress
Lazarus (1999)
suggests that hassles tend to build up and act as a source of persistent irritation which can then lead to anxiety and even depression.
Holmes and Rahe (1967) SRRS (Social Readjustment Rating Scale)
were two hospital doctors who noticed that many of the patients that they visited on their rounds had suffered life events causing disruption to their lives in the previous year. They decided to construct a questionnaire to examine the possible link between life changing events and physical ill-health.
- They examined the medical records of over 5000 patients
- They compiled a list of 43 life events
- They rated these in order of the time it would take to get your life back to some semblance of normality following the event
- They gave ‘marriage’ an arbitrary score of 500 and got others to rate the other events in comparison to this. They averaged out the scores and divided them by 10, so in the final scale ‘marriage’ has a score of 50.
- The scale starts at 100 LCUs (Life Change Units) for ‘death of a spouse and ends with 11 LCUs for ‘minor violation of the law.’
The scale was tested on different groups of people to determine its relevance. Patients would add up the score for each life event and this would be their total LCU. They believed that a score of over 300 meant an 80% chance of developing a serious physical illness in the following year.
Segerstrom and Miller (2004)
carried out a meta-analysis of other studies and concluded pretty much the same thing. Short term stress boosts immunity whereas long term, chronic stress suppresses immunity. The longer the stress continues the weaker the immune response becomes leaving us more and more prone to infection.
Kiecolt-Glaser et al (1984)
Method
They took blood samples from 75 student volunteers
1. One month before examinations (control reading)
2. On the first day of their exams (stress reading).
They also completed a questionnaire to assess their psychiatric state, their level of loneliness and number of life events.
Results
In the stressed condition, on the day of their finals, they had significantly fewer natural killer cells.
They also found that loneliness, lots of life events and problems such as depression were all associated with a weak immune response.
Evaluation
It is a natural experiment since it took advantage of a naturally occurring event; examinations. The independent variable (IV) was exam stress, a long-term form of stress. Most studies have concentrated on short-term stress.
Stress and Illness
Hypertension - High blood pressure
Hypo-tension - Low blood pressure
Stress causes coronary heart disease when the person is suffering from prolonged stress, the glucose ans fatty acid levels stay high in the blood, which causes the artery walls to clog/fur up which results in heart disease and strokes.
Stress and the immune system
Natural immunity - Primitive system made of white blood cells in the blood stream. They attack/absorb invading pathogens/viruses and bacteria. These include natural killer cells and phagocytes.
Specific Immunity - Based on cells known as lymphocytes. Cells have the ability to recognize pathogens and produce specific antibodies to destroy them. Specific immunity is divide into cellular and numeral immunity.
SAM Pathway and HPA axis.
The hypothalamus - Center of the control of the brain.
The Pituitary gland - the master gland that releases hormones into the bloodstream. The ultimate control is at the hypothalamus as release depends on its activity, i.e, SAM or HPA.
HPA
- pituitary gland
- ACTH
- Adrenal Cortex
- Corticosteroids (they naturally suppress natural immunity)
- Liver collects fat and glucose which causes the immune system to suppress
SAM
- Adrenal medulla
- Adrenaline + Nor adrenaline
- Fight or flight bodily reaction
- Physiological reaction (sweating, dilation of eyes)
Fight or Flight Reaction.
Physical Changes -
- Our senses sharpen, our pupils dilate (to see clearly), hair stands on end (to become more sensitive to our environment)
- Heart rate increases to pump blood around the body, providing oxygen for the muscles.
- Blood vessels constrict making sure there is no unnecessary loss of blood.
The Body's response to Stress
- The body is made up of billions of cells organised into tissues and systems.
- The system is coordinated by the centers of the brain.
- The cells which make the nervous system are called neurons
Stress
Stress - When an imbalance or discrepancy exists between perceived demands and perceived coping resources then a small state of stress exists. Stress is an inability to cope under pressure. It can make you feel tired, frustrated, faint and cause palpitations.
The transactional model
Primary appraisal - assess the first situation. Perceived demands.
Secondary appraisal - Perceived coping resources
Cognitive appraisal - make a general assessment between the two - imbalance causes stress which is the bodily response as well as psychological response.
